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Adapted from Bulletin 4298, with additional material

By Rob Manning, Research Officer, Animal Research and Development Services, South Perth

• Introduction to honeybee pollination of crops - benefits, costs, techniques, contracts
• Bee pollination benefits for vegetables A to Z
• Bee pollination benefits for field crops A to Z
• Bee pollination benefits for fruit crops A to Z
• Bee pollination benefits for nut crops A to Z
• Bee pollination benefits for other crops A to Z
• Glossary of technical terms in bee pollination

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Introduction to honeybee pollination of crops

• Introduction to honeybee pollination of crops
• Development of pollination services in Western Australia
• Using pollination services: Growers' requirements and information
• Providing pollination services: Beekeepers' requirements and information
• Further reading on honeybee pollination

The future of pollination of crops by beekeepers in Western Australia is encouraging. The number of crops that can be pollinated are on the increase and in the fruit sector, new varieties are being planted and established crops are being expanded.

The use of honeybees in pollination will become very important as cropping areas enlarge and as export markets expand, with premium prices for quality. When projected yield increases can cover or exceed the costs of managed pollination, pollination businesses will become established.

Crop management is the major factor influencing honeybee pollination of crops.

Compared to other parts of the world, and even to the eastern States of Australia, Western Australia's current requirement for hive pollination services is very low. Only the Ord River district in the north-west of the State has well established pollination services. Elsewhere, growers' experiences with beehives and beekeepers' ability to offer this type of service are still to be developed.

Old notes discovered in the files of the Apiculture Section of the Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, show that one Karragullen fruit grower increased his yield from 17,000 cases of fruit to 25,000 cases with the placement of bees on his property, a 47 per cent improvement.

"It is greatly to be feared, however, that orchardists do not realise the importance of the presence of bees in their orchards; or if they do realise it, they are either content with the crop they have, are too much afraid of the handling of bees, or have not enough energy and enterprise to arrange for the installation of these most important agents in the fertilisation of their trees."

H. Willoughby Lance, Senior Apiculturist

Department of Agriculture, Western Australia, 1930

As pollination management systems develop and growers are better informed, the future for this type of service will be enhanced.

Development of pollination services in Western Australia

One of the reasons for the lack of a pollination service may be peculiar to Western Australia. Since the State's forests are close to the main fruit growing areas, the bees' importance to crop pollination has been taken for granted. Feral bees working freelance from holes in gum trees undertake much of the pollination in annual crops.

The momentum of developing larger crops will continue because of economies of scale. Studies in the United States on blueberries, for example, show that nearly five times as many feral honeybees are present in small crops than in larger crops. The low pollinator abundance associated with large crops indicate yields could be compromised by not providing the correct density of honeybees.

According to figures published in the United States, if honeybees were present only at the density associated with efficient honey production, yields per hectare of many crops could drop by over one half. If the honeybees were totally absent, the drop could be more than 90 per cent. American fruit, nut and seed growers began to realise that intensive bee pollination was essential to achieve high yields. This was dramatically illustrated during the 1950s when the entire alfalfa (lucerne) industry was re-structured for bee pollination. It has since become the fourth most valuable commodity grown in the United States.

At about the same time, the almond industry started to increase its plantings and by 1980 some 400,000 ha have been established requiring about 800,000 beehives annually. The almond pollination business is one of the most important developments in American beekeeping history.

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Using pollination services: Growers' requirements and information

• Getting started with pollination services
• Pollination contracts
• Honeybee requirements - what the grower should know
• Native bees as pollinators
• Beehive placement for pollinating crops
• Pollination of crops in greenhouses
• Some benefits of honeybee pollination of crops
• Further reading on honeybee pollination

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Getting started with pollination services

Growers must give beekeepers ample time to prepare for a pollination service. The hive management steps and beekeeper's time frame are shown in the diagram below

Beehive management for crop pollination. Parker, C. (1989) A pollination service - a beekeeper's view. In: Pollination Services. Proceedings of seminars held at Hobart and Deloraine on 19-20 September, 1989. Dept of Primary Industry, Tasmania.

Beehives that are managed to become strong hives will support a large number of developing brood with a high pollen requirement, leading to better pollination.

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Pollination contracts

A written contract signed by the beekeeper and grower usually ensures a better pollination service, especially when supplying bees for the first time or if the pollination service is for a large acreage - see the example agreement. The Californian experience with almonds is that beekeepers will do the right thing simply because it is the best way for them to retain the grower's business and therefore agreements are usually not required.

To be successful in the pollination business beekeepers must sell their services and not wait for growers to come to them.

When drawing up a contract, consider the following points:

• Dates when the bees have to be moved in and out of the crop.
• Condition of hives, frames of bees and brood numbers. Hives may need supplementary feeding while in the crop or orchard, especially if the hive/ha rate is high.
• Colony distribution within the crop. The Californians say the best method is to group hives in blocks of 24 around the edge of the crop.
• There are three suggested service fee arrangements:
  • Rental fees are a minimum charge per hive which covers moving and maintenance costs, plus normal business profit margins.
  • Share in crop fees gives an incentive to the beekeeper to use hives to the best advantage so as to get the highest possible yield.
  • Combined rental and share cropping fees are a third fee arrangement.
• Other service fees include payments for additional movement of bees in and out of the crop and within the crop. This can occur when flowering periods of the target crop are long and fresh hives are required to be brought into the crop or when hives need to be moved because of emergency spraying, for example, an outbreak of a pest or disease.
• Pesticides - the agreement should cover the following:
  • A requirement for at least 48 hours notice to remove the bees, particularly if the sprays are very toxic.
  • The timing of pesticide spraying. The late afternoon or early evening is preferred if sprays are relatively non-toxic, for example, fungicides. Wet hessian over the hives will protect a high percentage of the bees in the hives from spray drift.
  • Beehives should be placed away from possible spray drift. Take note of the direction of the prevailing winds at the time of pollination.
• An easy access to the hives is necessary, because the beekeeper will generally be arriving on site after dark.
• Beekeepers must manage hives properly, keeping them in good condition for pollination. Cull aggressive hives because growers do not like being stung.
• Consult local authorities if hives are to be placed near roads or public buildings.

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Sample pollination contract
Pollination agreement (1994)

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1. The Beekeeper ______________________ agrees to provide __________ standard colonies of bees at the rate of ___________ hives per hectare for the pollination of ______ hectares of ______________ situated in the district of ____________ and owned by ___________ (the Grower) over the period ___________ to ______________.

The Beekeeper shall not be responsible for the replacement of beehives injured by chemical poisoning or other damage after the bees have been placed on the property.

The Beekeeper has the right to remove the beehives after first notifying the grower if chemicals injurious to bees are to be applied to crops within the 1500 m flight range of the bees and to keep bees from the crop during the danger period without penalties under this agreement.

2. The Grower shall be entitled to inspect, or cause to be inspected by an official government apiary inspector, each colony of bees after giving reasonable notice to the beekeeper of his intent over the period of the agreement.

3. The Beekeeper agrees to maintain the bees in proper pollinating condition by judicious inspection and supering or removal of honey as needed.

4. The Grower agrees to provide suitable dry locations for the bees and to assume the responsibility of providing water to the bees. If there are no directions given as to a suitable location, the Beekeeper, according to his judgement, shall place the hives in such a way as to ensure maximum pollination of the target crop.

5. The Grower agrees to pay $_______ rental per beehive colony for the duration of the contract. Payment shall be made to the Beekeeper as follows:

$______ on delivery and

$______ (the balance) being paid on or before _________ (date).

Additional moves or settings of beehives shall require $________ per hive per move.

and/or the Grower agrees that the Beekeeper is entitled to ____ per cent of the crop yield (based on expected yield increase through bee pollination).

6. In the event of the Grower not harvesting the crop, the expected yield shall be determined by an independent authority.

7. In the event of crop failure after the bees have been brought to the crop through circumstances beyond the control of Grower or Beekeeper, the Grower agrees to pay the Beekeeper the agreed fee per hive.

8. In the event of circumstances beyond the control of both the Grower and Beekeeper where bees have been contracted but not delivered, and are unable to be delivered due to the crop being affected by environmental extremes, for example, flowers have been destroyed by frost or cyclone, the beehives have been weakened by brood disease, been destroyed by wildfire, truck break-downs en route or the health of Beekeeper precludes delivery, then the contract is null and void.

9. Forty-eight (48) hours notice shall be given to the Beekeeper prior to any spraying by the Grower.

10. This agreement is not assignable or transferable by either the Grower or Beekeeper.

Signed:	______________________	Beekeeper	__________	(Date)
Signed:	______________________	Grower	__________	(Date)
Signed:	______________________	Witness*	__________	(Date)

(* Justice of the Peace or Commissioner of Declarations)

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Honeybee requirements - what the grower should know

Growers should be aware of the following requirements of honeybees.

• Bees require access to at least four litres of clean water per hive per day. Over 94 per cent of bees that are collecting water for their hive are found within 500 m of home apiaries. Gary et al. (1979) Journal of Apicultural Research 18(1): 26-29.
• Bees can travel up to several kilometres, but work most efficiently within 300 m of the hive.
• Bees need to orientate themselves to find their way back to their hives. In broadscale crops, clearly defined markers are necessary.
• If growers need to urgently control insects at flowering time, they must observe the following guidelines:
• • - Give the beekeeper at least 48 hours notice to remove the apiary to safety.
  • - Spray in the late afternoon or early evening.
  • - Use a spray of moderately low toxicity to bees.

When there are no differences in crop production after bees have been used, the biggest negative factor has been inadequate pollination, that is, not enough beehives were used in the initial pollination service.

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Native bees as pollinators

Growers should also be aware of the importance of native bees. Lessons from overseas show that when farmers encouraged the survival of native solitary bees, most crops, particularly lucerne, achieved spectacular increases in yield. Fencing remnant vegetation and encouraging regrowth or replanting native plant species in small areas is helpful.

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Beehive placement for pollinating crops

There are two ways to place beehives in crops, evenly throughout, or in groups around the crop. It has been very difficult carrying out research to compare these two methods. Nevertheless, ignoring these methods and placing beehives away from the crop results in poor overall pollination.

Clear examples of what happens with the two methods of placing hives are shown in the accompanying diagrams.

Map of lucerne crop showing foraging territories of bees from apiaries placed within the field.
Map of lucerne crop showing foraging territories of bees from apiaries placed at various distances from the field edges.

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Pollination of crops in greenhouses

Confining the honeybees in a greenhouse for pollination can be very harsh on the bee population. Many bees become disorientated in this environment and fail to return to the hive. Sources of nutrition for the honey bee is limited and queen bees fail to lay eggs after a short period of time.

Following greenhouse pollination, beehives are usually deemed expendable after the pollination contract and therefore a higher rental fee is charged. Small nucleus hives are sufficient for greenhouse pollination. Sugar syrup must be fed inside the hive, when required, to improve pollination.

Research carried out by the Department of Agriculture in glasshouses, where bees were not fed, showed that the population of bees in nucleus hives started to decline after two weeks because the queen bee stopped laying eggs. After four weeks the hives were very weak.

Nucleus hives that were very strong in population were not recommended, since the field bees flew up into the apex of the glasshouse and within a few days, thousands of dead bees littered the floor. This is prevented by picking up hives required for greenhouse pollination about midday from an apiary. This action 'bleeds off' the older foraging honey bees.

Hive numbers

This can never be specific because of greenhouse size and plant types to be pollinated. But examples are available. For a greenhouse growing 4 000 cauliflowers for seed production, two hives are used, each containing 8 000 to 10 000 bees. These hives have five frames of bees, one queen and plenty of young bees. These hives can expand out into 11 brood frames within each hive. The hives are fed with a sugar candy, two or three 1.4 kg slabs are placed into each hive prior to being used in a greenhouse. These slabs are wrapped in plastic with a hole torn in the underside giving access to honey bees. They are placed directly over the brood frames. The beekeeper also used granulated sugar - 1 kg bags of sugar (from the supermarket) were dipped in water long enough to allow water to soak through the paper and dampen the sugar. Each bag was covered with plastic and a hole was then torn in one end of the bag and placed over the brood frames. Apparently there is enough pollen from the crop to supply protein to the hive.

Bee hive placement

Hives are placed on boxes, about 1 metre off the ground so the bees can fly over the crop easily.

The beehives are brought in when about one third of the crop is in flower. The colonies can remain in the greenhouses for 4 to 5 weeks as long as they are fed carbohydrate (sugar).

Types of crops

Some of the crops greenhouse growers have used honey bees to pollinate seed and fruit crops are:

• Broccoli (for seed) - see Sherriff, B. (1997) Pollinating in greenhouses. Beeculture 125(12): 29-30.
• Canola (special seed crosses)
• Cauliflower (for seed) See Sherriff, B. (1997) Pollinating in greenhouses. Beeculture 125(12): 29-30.
• Cucumber
• Onion (special seed crosses)
• Maintaining germplasms (seed for long term storage).
• Red clover (for seed - See reference 2)
• Rockmelon (see references 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 ).
• Runner Bean
• Stonefruit (Japan)
• Strawberry See Sherriff, B. (1997) Pollinating in greenhouses. Beeculture 125(12): 29-30.
• Tomato
• Watermelon
• Zucchini

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Abstracts of scientific papers on pollination of crops in greenhouses

• Integrated production of out-of-season cantaloupes in West Africa, with the aid of a spunbonded row cover
• Accelerated production of red clover breeding material by means of honey bee pollination in greenhouses
• The influence of hive location on honeybee foraging activity and fruit set in melons grown in plastic greenhouses
• Pollination of cantaloupes under spunbonded row cover by honey bees in West Africa
• Honey bees placed under row covers affect muskmelon yield and quality
• Pollination of melons in greenhouses
• The pollination of melons in air inflated greenhouses by honey bees

1. TITLE: Integrated production of out-of-season cantaloupes in West Africa, with the aid of a spunbonded row cover.
   ABSTRACT: In this region, Cucumis  melo is subjected to severe attacks by insects. Trials were made in Senegal with plants: (A) in sealed polyethylene tunnels, (B) as A but with one end open, (C) as A but supplied with honey bees (Apis mellifera adansonii) by fitting the tunnel with three entrances from a hive, (D) polyethylene laid directly on the plants. Best results were obtained from C plants which yielded 0.97 kg export-grade fruits/plant. B plants gave 0.56 kg/plant. Methods A and D were not economically viable.
   AUTHOR: R. Froissart, M. Gerard, B. E. Vaissière
   JOURNAL: Fruits (Paris) (1995) 50(5): 359-374.
2. TITLE: Accelerated production of red clover breeding material by means of honey bee pollination in greenhouses.
   ABSTRACT: Only a small proportion of the honey bee colony used for pollination in an artificial climate during the winter were involved in pollination but several visits were paid to every flower, and each bee visited 9 to 19 flowers/minute. Diploid and tetraploid forms were pollinated separately, pollen fertility in the former being 78 to 96% and in the latter 74 to 92%. The percentage of seeds/head was higher with bee pollination (23%) than manual pollination (19.4%) in the tetraploids in 1986. The seed set in 1987-88 was 33.4 to 40.8% in the tetraploids and 59.1 to 60.4% in the diploids after bee pollination. The seeds obtained were suitable for continued breeding work in the field and enabled the breeding process to be shortened by two or more years.
   AUTHOR: Z.A. Zar'Yanova
   JOURNAL: Vil'yamsa No. 42, 31-36 (1989).
3. TITLE: The influence of hive location on honeybee foraging activity and fruit set in melons grown in plastic greenhouses.
   ABSTRACT: Melon (Cucumis melo L) is a very important winter crop in Israel, especially in the extremely hot Arava Valley. The melons are grown in 120 metre long plastic tunnels, which create problems in terms of pollination. Because of local southern windstorms, the long plastic tunnels can only be oriented in one direction, from north to south. Beekeepers disagree as to the best site to locate the beehives. Observation of bee foraging behaviour and analysis of wind direction in the experimental plots revealed that placing hives at the northern end of the tunnel allows for higher bee activity in the morning. This results in a higher yield compared with that obtained when hives are located at the southern end of the tunnel.
   AUTHOR: A. Dag, D. Eisikowitch
   JOURNAL: Apidologie 26: 511-519 (1995)
4. TITLE : Pollination of cantaloupes under spunbonded row cover by honey bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) in West Africa.
   ABSTRACT: We evaluated two pollination treatments that did not require removal of the cover on cantaloupes under small tunnels of Agryl in West Africa. The cover was removed from control plots at the onset of pistillate flowering but was maintained over treated plants for an additional 20 days. In the first treatment, one end of the tunnel was cut open to allow some access to pollinators. In the second treatment, the tunnel was kept closed but was provided with a multiple-entrance hive.
   The cover did not affect production or concentration of nectar. Honey bees, Apis mellifera adansonii Latreille, flew under the cover in both treatments, with an average of 54% as many bees foraging under the tunnels opened at one end as in the control. However, muscid flies, which were the most abundant flower visitors in the open, hardly foraged under the cover. Pollination intensity and amount of cantaloupe pollen on the body of honey bee foragers in the two covered treatments were similar but were significantly greater than in the open.
   Total yield, fruit size, and seed content confirmed that pollination was at least as good in the covered plots as in the control. Covered plants produced more commercial-grade fruit than control plants, which received six insecticide applications, demonstrating the usefulness of these pollination treatments in combination with the row cover for integrated pest management.
   AUTHOR: Bernard E. Vaissière and Rémy Froissart
   JOURNAL: Journal of Economic Entomology 89(5): 1213-1222 (1996).
5. TITLE: : Honey bees placed under row covers affect muskmelon yield and quality.br> ABSTRACT: Row covers, removed at the first flush of female flowers, advanced the initial harvest date, enhanced early yield and improved fruit quality of two cultivars of muskmelon (Cucumis melo L.). Including colonies of bees (Apis mellifera L.) under the covers enabled the covers to be left on for another month and further advanced the initial harvest date and early yield. Individual fruit weight was greater from row cover treatments with bees than without, and was highly correlated with total seed weight.
   AUTHOR: M.M. Gaye, A.R. Maurer and F.M. Seywerd
   JOURNAL: Scientia Horticulturae 47: 59-66 (1991).
6. TITLE: Pollination of melons in greenhouses
   ABSTRACT: Honeybees visited watermelon flowers adequately in polyethylene greenhouses resulting in a set of fruit. Between 41% and 95% of the flowers visited by bees set fruit, while no fruit was set on flowers which bees were prevented from visiting. Honeybees also flew satisfactorily and visited muskmelon flowers in a large fibreglass greenhouse and a good crop of melons resulted.
   AUTHOR: Hayward G. Spangler and Joseph O. Moffett
   JOURNAL: Gleanings in Bee Culture 107: 17-18 1979.
7. TITLE: : The pollination of melons in air inflated greenhouses by honey bees
   ABSTRACT: The behaviour and pollination effectiveness of honey bees, Apis mellifera L., were studied in an enclosed environment. Four groups of melon plants, Cucumis melo L., were grown in an inflated polyethylene greenhouse and exposed for variable times to bee pollination. Blooms were shielded from bee visits with gelatin capsules.
   Plant blooms shielded from bees during the entire experiment produced no edible melons. The production of plants with blooms exposed for various times did not vary significantly. Seed counts, percent soluble solids, and weights of melons indicated adequate pollination. Variable carbon dioxide concentrations within the greenhouse appeared to affect the soluble solids percentages in mature melons. Bee activity was enhanced by the presence of supplemental pollen cake.
   AUTHOR: William A. Iselin, Merle H. Jensen and Hayward G. Spangler
   JOURNAL: Environmental Entomology 3: 664-666 1974.

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Some benefits of honeybee pollination of crops

• The value of honeybee pollination of canola, sunflower, buckwheat, mustard and Faba beans in Canada was estimated to be between $20 and $50 million dollars in 1987-88.
• At two hives per hectare the costs of managed beehives are 67 to 80 per cent less than the costs of fertiliser, chemicals or irrigation per hectare to grow productive fruit trees. Efficient pollination of the flowers is as important as the other inputs in having a productive orchard.

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Further reading on honeybee pollination

• Bulletin 4250 "Honeybee pollination of crops" (Agdex 100/20) Department of Agriculture, Western Australia.
• De Grandi-Hoffman, G. (1987) The honey bee pollination component of horticultural crop production systems. In: Horticultural Reviews 9, Janick, J. (editor) Purdue University, An. AVI Book, Van Nostrand Company, New York.

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Providing pollination services: Beekeepers' requirements and information

• Code of Practice for pollination services
• Pollination contracts
• Hive requirements for pollination
• Beekeeper problems in providing pollination services
• Beehive placement for pollinating crops
• Pollination of crops in greenhouses
• Cost of providing bees for pollination
• Further reading on honeybee pollination

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Code of Practice for pollination services

Department of Agriculture, in association with beekeepers from the Western Australian Farmers Federation, Swan Settlers' Cooperative Association and the Western Australian Apiarists' Society, has compiled a Code of Practice for honeybee pollination services. Growers contracting beekeepers who are not following the Code of Practice may be paying for an inferior pollination service.

The Code of Practice states:

1.	Beehives used in a professional pollination service need to be structurally sound and of clean and tidy appearance.
2.	Beehives need to contain honeybees that are reasonably quiet (not aggressive).
3.	The population of bees within the hive will meet minimum standards, as follows:
3.1	Contain a young laying queen up to 12 months of age.
3.2	Be free of infectious brood diseases such as American Brood Disease.
3.3	Contain a minimum number of brood frames and bees, as follows: Minimum number of brood frame and bees specified in Code of Practice Hive type Minimum no. of frames of brood Minimum no. of frames covered with bees 10 frame Langstroth (single) 6 7 8 frame Langstroth (single) 5 6 10 frame Langstroth (double) 6 12 (5 in super) 8 frame Langstroth (double) 5 10 (4 in super) 4 frame nucleus hive 2 3
4.	Beehives are to be two-storey (doubles), except for nucleus hives and where pollination requirements suit 8 and 10 frame single Langstroth boxes.
5.	Beekeepers and growers will clearly state their requirements in a written agreement. If individuals are confident with each other's verbal agreement, this can replace a written agreement.
6.	A water supply to the bees must be away from dwellings.
7.	Where possible, beehives are to be located towards the centre of the crop or evenly spaced throughout, or at the direction of the grower. Practical experience in California shows hives are best placed in groups of about 24 hives.
8.	Beekeepers should avoid locating beehives near public roads and buildings.
9.	Beekeepers will take the opportunity to educate growers about honeybees and the work involved in supplying hives to the standard of the Code of Practice.
10.	Beekeepers should be amenable to open up a few hives for the grower's satisfaction, if required, to show that Standard Three of the Code of Practice has been met. Allow the bees to settle down after being placed in the crop before showing the grower.
11.	The Code of Practice will be made freely available to growers seeking paid pollination.

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Pollination contracts

Sample pollination contract

An example of a contract is provided in the section "Using pollination services'.

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Hive requirements for pollination

The hives required for pollination should meet the following specifications:

• At least two-storey Langstroth hives.
• Seven or more frames of brood which are 60 per cent full of brood (equivalent to 7000 sq cm of brood, or 4 full frames of brood). Brood area for a full depth Langstroth frame is about 886 sq cm per side or 1772 sq cm for both sides.
• Twenty-five per cent or more of the brood unsealed.
• Enough bees to cover 7 to 10 frames in the brood box.
• A young laying queen.
• At least 15 kg (seven full frames) of reserve honey and sufficient empty frames for further storage.
• Free from American Brood Disease.

Under cool weather conditions a hive with eight frames of bees (about 15,000 bees) will be up to four times more effective than a four-frame nucleus hive.

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Beekeeper problems in providing pollination services

Problems for beekeepers in the pollination service include the following:

• Bees subjected to poor nectar flows.
• Bees gathering low protein pollens, causing them to lose condition. Pollen with less than 20 per cent crude protein cannot satisfy colony requirements for optimum production.
• Pollination of crops which coincides with better quality alternative nectar and pollen in adjacent crops and forest areas.
• Pesticide and insecticide hazards. Most bee poisonings occur when insecticides are applied to crops during the flowering period. They can also be poisoned by drifting sprays used some distance away and by contaminated water, either in streams and waterways or on plant foliage. Poisonings can be minimised through the cooperation of the farmer or beekeeper and the person applying the insecticide.
  Dust formulations are the most hazardous, followed by wettable powders and emulsifying concentrates.

In 1980, 842 beehives were accidentally poisoned by aerial and field spraying carried out on farms near forestry sites. The chemicals dimethoate and carbaryl were used on strawberry clover and lucerne crops at Myalup, 130 km south of Perth. Of the 842 beehives, 461 were destroyed. Kessell, A.C. (1983) The Australasian Beekeeper 177.

• Feeding sugar syrup to pollination hives
• Feeding pollen supplements to pollination hives
• Commercial bee attractants for improving pollination
• Using Beetubes in pollination of orchard crops

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Feeding sugar syrup to pollination hives

When beehives are brought in for pollination work, the crop may produce insufficient nectar, for example, in kiwifruit. Goodwin and ten Houten found that feeding sugar syrup resulted in an increase in the amount of both kiwifruit and non-kiwifruit pollen collected (The New Zealand Beekeeper 1988).

A sugar syrup must be fed inside the hives, preferably daily or every second day. It is best fed in the morning, at one litre per colony, using a one to one sugar/water mixture.

The feeder should allow a large number of bees access to the syrup at the same time and should be placed in the top super of the hive. When bees are fed a sugar syrup, more bees foraging will be pollen gatherers which results in a higher rate of pollination.

In Perth, single Langstroth hives used 35.2 g/day of an irradiated honey and icing sugar mix over winter. Manning, R. (1993) The Australasian Beekeeper 94(7).

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Feeding pollen supplements to pollination hives

To build beehives up to the required strength, feeding pollen or a pollen substitute is required when there are no natural sources of food available, for example, during non-flowering periods, or at drought or fire-affected apiary sites. Try to trap and store (frozen or dry) red gum, canola or capeweed pollen and feed back when required. White gum or wandoo pollens are considered poor pollens to feed bees.

Pollen supplements made up of various blends of proteins, such as yeasts, are never as good as natural pollens. Although supplements increase brood production, worker bees live about four days less than bees fed on pollen only.

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Open air feeding

Open air feeding is a dry feeding method where the pollen supplement is placed out in the open in or near an apiary. The feed contains one part torula/ brewer's yeast, three parts low fat expeller soy flour and one part bee-collected irradiated pollen.

Feeding inside the beehive

Feeding inside the beehive can be done in two ways:

• Place one part of the above mix with four parts of fine grade cane sugar (250 to 500 g per hive) on the inner plastic mat under the lid.
• Mix four parts of finely ground expeller soy flour (fine enough to pass through a 200 micron screen) with three parts honey. This mixture was used by bees at 4.65 g/day during a reasonable pollen flow from flatweed in New South Wales. Stace, P. (1994) The Australasian Beekeeper 96(1).

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Commercial bee attractants for improving pollination

Some attempts to attract bees to crops to improve yield and quality have been tested with no beneficial outcome.

Tests on apples found no significant improvement in yield and quality with a commercial bee attractant (Rajotte and Fell (1982) Hortscience 17(2): 230-31)

Treatment	Mean forage bee/tree	Bees with pollen	Fruit set (%)
Beelure®	3.3±0.31*	12.5±3.8	84.5±3.5
Control	3.9±0.35	11.8±5.2	82.4±3.9

* Average ± Standard Error

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Beelure® contains a honeybee pheromone called Nasonov pheromone to attract bees to the crop. More recent advances in this technology have concentrated on the Queen Mandibular pheromone which is sold as Fruit Boost®. There has been some success with this pheromone, particularly with pears and highbush blueberries, though not every year's trial has given the same yield after using this product.

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Cost of providing bees for pollination

Two sets of tables have been constructed to show how to calculate beehive rental.

1. One set is based on 100 hives.
2. The other set is based on a part-time beekeeper using 30 hives in a pollination service.

The calculations take into account the factors (a) to (g), listed below:

1. Research shows the average daily production of honey to be 0.5 kg over a year. A pollination period of 42 days (6 weeks) would produce 21 kg of honey. The honey price used in the calculations is $1.14/kg. If the beekeeper misses a red gum honey flow because of a pollination contract, the average daily production of honey would need to be adjusted to 1 kg/day or twice the amount shown in the example.
2. Transport costs are based upon distance traveled in (c) times the cost of $1.00/km divided by 100 beehives.
3. The distances to crops would vary for each beekeeper.
4. The average speed of a truck laden with beehives is 80 km/h. The calculation is made by dividing (c) by 80 km/h times $20/h labour charge divided by 100 beehives.
5. Moving beehives into the crop and picking them up is calculated to take three hours per shift. There are two shifts of bees, therefore the calculation is as follows:

   3 hours x 2 shifts x $20/h labour charge divided by 100 hives.

   The labour charge is based upon private companies whose costs include all the add-ons like workers compensation, insurance, superannuation, training levy, payroll tax, wages, group certificates and public liability insurance. These labour hire companies are usually open 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.

6. The profit of 20 per cent is an example only, and in a business sense is probably too low when compared to normal wholesale-retail mark ups in other businesses.
7. The final factor to consider is expected price per beehive for a full pollination service for an 8 or 10 frame Langstroth two-storey beehive.

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Calculating the cost of a pollination service, based on 100 hives

Click on the locality of the crop to go to the appropriate table:

Perth	100 km radius
South-west WA	Pinjarra to Albany
North of agricultural area	Gingin to Geraldton
East of agricultural area	York to Toodyay
Far North	Carnarvon to Broome
Goldfields	Kalgoorlie

Calculating the cost of a pollination service, based on 30 hives and a part-time beekeeper

Click on the locality of the crop to go to the appropriate table:

Perth	100 km radius
South-west WA	Pinjarra to Albany
North of agricultural area	Gingin to Geraldton
East of agricultural area	York to Toodyay
Far North	Carnarvon to Broome
Goldfields	Kalgoorlie

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Calculations on the cost of pollination service, based on 100 hives: Perth - 100 km radius
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$3.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	300 km (75 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$0.75
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.20
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$5.78
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$34.67
Calculations on the cost of pollination service, based on 100 hives: South-west (Pinjarra to Albany)
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$8.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	800 km (200 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$2.00
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.20
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	7.03
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$42.17
Calculations on the cost of pollination service, based on 100 hives: North (Gingin to Geraldton)
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$12.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	1200 km (300 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$3.00
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.20
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$8.03
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$48.17
Calculations on the cost of pollination service, based on 100 hives: East (York to Toodyay)
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$9.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	900 km (225 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$2.25
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.20
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$7.28
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$43.67
Calculations on the cost of pollination service, based on 100 hives: Far North (Carnarvon to Broome)
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$60.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	6000 km (1500 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$15.00
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.20
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$20.03
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$120.17
Calculations on the cost of pollination service, based on 100 hives: Goldfields (Kalgoorlie)
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$28.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	2800 km (700 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$7.
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.20
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$12.03
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$72.17
Example of costs based on 30 hives (1995): Perth - 100 km radius
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$10.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	300 km (75 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$2.50
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.33
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$7.55
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$45.32
Example of costs based on 30 hives: South-west (Pinjarra to Albany)
	Factors determining price	Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)	$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)	$26.67
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)	800 km (200 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)	$6.67
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)	$1.33
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)	$11.72
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive	$70.33
Example of costs based on 30 hives: North (Gingin to Geraldton)
	Factors determining price			Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)		$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)		$40.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)		1200 km (300 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)		$10.00
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)		$1.33
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)		$15.05
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive		$90.32
Example of costs based on 30 hives: East (York to Toodyay)
	Factors determining price			Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)			$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)			$15.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)			900 km (225 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)			$7.50
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)			$1.33
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)			$9.55
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive			$57.32
Example of costs based on 30 hives: Far north (Carnarvon to Broome)
	Factors determining price			Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)			$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)			$200.00
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)			6000 km (1500 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)			$50.00
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)			$1.33
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)			$55.05
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive			$330.32
Example of costs based on 30 hives: Goldfields (Kalgoorlie)
	Factors determining price			Cost
(a)	Loss of honey production (21 kg)			$23.94
(b)	Truck transport (cost per hive)			$93.33
(c)	Nominal round trip ex Perth (2 trips)			2800 km (700 km radius)
(d)	Driver labour cost (per hive   80 km/hour)			$23.33)
(e)	Labour cost - load and unload hives (3 hours x 2 shifts)			$1.33
(f)	Profit on outlay per hive (20%)			$28.39
(g)	Total cost of beehive rental, per hive			$170.32

Page reviewed : March 2006